Effects of Viruses on Innate and Adaptive Immunity: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Prevention

Abstract

Viruses pose a serious threat to human health by hijacking host cellular machinery and altering immune responses. Understanding virus–immune system interactions is crucial for controlling viral diseases. This study focuses on the roles of innate and adaptive immunity in antiviral defense. Innate immunity provides the first barrier through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and type I interferon signaling, whereas adaptive immunity mediates antigen-specific responses and immune memory. However, many viruses evade immunity through mechanisms such as interferon inhibition, antigenic variation, latency, and T-cell exhaustion, especially in chronic infections like HIV, HBV, and HCV. These strategies promote immune dysfunction and viral persistence. Recent therapeutic advances, including mRNA vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and nanotechnology-based delivery systems, offer promising approaches to enhance antiviral immunity and limit viral replication.